COYOTE: (Canis latrans)

The adaptable coyote is common throughout Missouri, including in urban and suburban areas. The bulk of its diet consists of small mammals, insects, carrion, and wild fruits. However, coyotes sometimes kill poultry, young pigs, goats, sheep, small calves, and pets (especially small dogs). Coyotes also occasionally eat produce such as sweet corn and watermelon. These opportunistic feeding habits can lead to conflicts with farmers, ranchers, and suburbanites. Coyotes may carry rabies, so if a person or pet is bitten or scratched, consult your local health department. Food-habituated coyotes are more likely to come into contact with people and create problems.

 

Health and Safety Concerns

Coyotes are typically not considered a threat to humans, although several documented attacks have occurred, including a few that resulted in death. Children are at the greatest risk. Researchers have created an ascending scale that may be useful in evaluating the likelihood of attacks by coyotes in some situations. The risk of an attack increases as you progress from the first to the last item on this list.

 

1. Is there an increase in numbers of coyotes on streets and in yards at night?

2. Is there an increase in numbers of coyotes approaching adults or taking pets at night?

3. Are coyotes observed early in the morning and late in the afternoon on streets and in parks and yards?

4. Are coyotes observed chasing or taking pets during the day time?

5. Do coyotes attack and take pets on leash or in proximity to their owners?

6. Do coyotes chase joggers, bicyclists, or other adults?

7. Are coyotes seen in and around play areas, school grounds, and parks during the day?

8. Do coyotes act aggressively toward adults during mid-day?

 

Coyotes suffer from various diseases, including distemper, hepatitis, parvovirus, heartworm, and demodectic and sarcoptic mange. Rabies and tularemia also occur, and may be transmitted to other animals and humans. Coyotes also harbor numerous parasites including mites, ticks, fleas, worms, and flukes. Rabid coyotes may be very aggressive, so if a person or pet is bitten or scratched, consult your local health department.

 

Identification

In body form and size, the coyote resembles a German Shepherd or Collie dog, with erect pointed ears, slender muzzle, and a bushy tail. Coyotes are predominantly brownish gray in color with a light gray to cream-colored belly. Color varies greatly, however, from nearly black to red or nearly white in some individuals and local populations. Most have dark or black guard hairs over their back and tail. In western states, typical adult males weigh from 25 to 45 pounds (11 to 16 kg) and females from 22 to 35 pounds (10 to 14 kg). In the East, many coyotes are larger than their western counterparts, with males averaging about 45 pounds (14 kg) and females about 30 pounds (13 kg). Coyote-dog and coyote-wolf hybrids exist in some areas and may vary greatly from typical coyotes in size, color, and appearance. Also, coyotes in the New England states may differ in color from typical western coyotes. Many are black, and some are reddish. These colorations may partially be due to past hybridization with dogs and wolves. True wolves are also present in some areas of coyote range, particularly in Canada, Alaska, Montana, northern Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan. Relatively few wolves remain in the southern United States and Mexico.

 

Range

Despite being extensively hunted, the coyote is one of the few medium- to large-sized animals that has enlarged its range since human settlement began. Historically, coyotes were most common on the Great Plains, but their range has spread eastward since the 1920s. Their range now extends from Central America to the Arctic, including all of the United States (except Hawaii), Canada, and Mexico.HabitatMany references indicate that coyotes were originally found in relatively open habitats, particularly the grasslands and sparsely wooded areas of the western United States. Whether or not this was true, coyotes have adapted to and now exist in virtually every type of habitat, arctic to tropic, in North America. Coyotes live in deserts, swamps, tundra, grasslands, brush, dense forests, from below sea level to high mountain ranges, and at all intermediate altitudes. High densities of coyotes also appear in the suburbs of Los Angeles, Pasadena, Phoenix, New York and Chicago.

 

Food Habits

Coyotes often include many items in their diet. Rabbits top the list of their dietary components; carrion, rodents, ungulates (usually fawns), insects (such as grasshoppers), as well as livestock and poultry, are also consumed. Coyotes readily eat fruits such as watermelons, berries, and other vegetative matter when they are available. In some areas coyotes feed on human refuse at dump sites and take pets (cats and small dogs).Coyotes are opportunistic and generally take prey that is the easiest to secure. Among larger wild animals, coyotes tend to kill young, inexperienced animals, as well as old, sick, or weakened individuals. With domestic animals, coyotes are capable of catching and killing healthy, young, and in some instances, adult prey. Prey selection is based on opportunity and a myriad of behavioral cues. Strong, healthy lambs are often taken from a flock by a coyote even though smaller, weaker lambs are also present. Usually, the stronger lamb is on the periphery and is more active, making it more prone to attack than a weaker lamb that is at the center of the flock and relatively immobile.Coyote predation on livestock is generally more severe during early spring and summer than in winter for two reasons. First, sheep and cows are usually under more intensive management during winter, either in feedlots or in pastures that are close to human activity, thus reducing the opportunity for coyotes to take livestock. Second, predators bear young in the spring and raise them through the summer, a process that demands increased nutritional input, for both the whelping and nursing mother and the growing young. This increased demand corresponds to the time when young sheep or beef calves are on pastures or rangeland and are most vulnerable to attack. Coyote predation also may increase during fall when young coyotes disperse from their home ranges and establish new territories.

 

General Biology, Reproduction, and Behavior

Coyotes are most active at night and during early morning hours (especially where human activity occurs), and during hot summer weather. Where there is minimal human interference and during cool weather, they may be active throughout the day. Coyotes bed in sheltered areas but do not generally use dens except when raising young. They may seek shelter underground during severe weather or when closely pursued. Their physical abilities include good eyesight and hearing and a keen sense of smell. Documented recoveries from severe injuries are indicative of coyotes’ physical endurance. Although not as fleet as greyhound dogs, coyotes have been measured at speeds of up to 40 miles per hour (64 km/hr) and can sustain slower speeds for several miles (km).Distemper, hepatitis, parvo virus, and mange (caused by parasitic mites) are among the most common coyote diseases. Rabies and tularemia also occur and may be transmitted to other animals and humans. Coyotes harbor numerous parasites including mites, ticks, fleas, worms, and flukes. Mortality is highest during the first year of life, and few survive for more than 10 to 12 years in the wild. Human activity is often the greatest single cause of coyote mortality.Coyotes usually breed in February and March, producing litters about 9 weeks (60 to 63 days) later in April and May. Females sometimes breed during the winter following their birth, particularly if food is plentiful. Average litter size is 5 to 7 pups, although up to 13 in a litter has been reported. More than one litter may be found in a single den; at times these may be from females mated to a single male. As noted earlier, coyotes are capable of hybridizing with dogs and wolves, but reproductive dysynchrony and behaviors generally make it unlikely. Hybrids are fertile, although their breeding seasons do not usually correspond to those of coyotes.Coyote dens are found in steep banks, rock crevices, sinkholes, and underbrush, as well as in open areas. Usually their dens are in areas selected for protective concealment. Den sites are typically located less than a mile (km) from water, but may occasionally be much farther away. Coyotes will often dig out and enlarge holes dug by smaller burrowing animals. Dens vary from a few feet (1 m) to 50 feet (15 m) and may have several openings.Both adult male and female coyotes hunt and bring food to their young for several weeks. Other adults associated with the denning pair may also help in feeding and caring for the young. Coyotes commonly hunt as singles or pairs; extensive travel is common in their hunting forays. They will hunt in the same area regularly, however, if food is plentiful. They occasionally bury food remains for later use. Pups begin emerging from their den by 3 weeks of age, and within 2 months they follow adults to large prey or carrion. Pups normally are weaned by 6 weeks of age and frequently are moved to larger quarters such as dense brush patches and/or sinkholes along water courses. The adults and pups usually remain together until late summer or fall when pups become independent. Occasionally pups are found in groups until the breeding season begins. Coyotes are successful at surviving and even flourishing in the presence of people because of their adaptable behavior and social system. They typically display increased reproduction and immigration in response to human-induced population reduction.

 

Damage and Damage Identification

Coyotes can cause damage to a variety of resources, including livestock, poultry, and crops such as watermelons. They sometimes prey on pets and are a threat to public health and safety when they frequent airport runways and residential areas, and act as carriers of rabies. Usually, the primary concern regarding coyotes is predation on livestock, mainly sheep and lambs. Since coyotes frequently scavenge on livestock carcasses, the mere presence of coyote tracks or droppings near a carcass is not sufficient evidence that predation has taken place. Other evidence around the site and on the carcass must be carefully examined to aid in determining the cause of death. Signs of a struggle may be evident.These may include scrapes or drag marks on the ground, broken vegetation, or blood in various places around the site. The quantity of sheep or calf remains left after a kill vary widely depending on how recently the kill was made, the size of the animal killed, the weather, and the number and species of predators that fed on the animal.One key in determining whether a sheep or calf was killed by a predator is the presence or absence of subcutaneous (just under the skin) hemorrhage at the point of attack. Bites to a dead animal will not produce hemorrhage, but bites to a live animal will. If enough of the sheep carcass remains, carefully skin out the neck and head to observe tooth punctures and hemorrhage around the punctures. Talon punctures from large birds of prey will also cause hemorrhage, but the location of these is usually at the top of the head, neck, or back. This procedure becomes less indicative of predation as the age of the carcass increases or if the remains are scanty or scattered. Coyotes, foxes, mountain lions, and bobcats usually feed on a carcass at the flanks or behind the ribs and first consume the liver, heart, lungs, and other viscera. Mountain lions often cover a carcass with debris after feeding on it. Bears generally prefer meat to viscera and often eat first the udder from lactating ewes. Eagles skin out carcasses on larger animals and leave much of the skeleton intact. With smaller animals such as lambs, eagles may bite off and swallow the ribs. Feathers and “whitewash” (droppings) are usually present where an eagle has fed. Coyotes may kill more than one animal in a single episode, but often will only feed on one of the animals. Coyotes typically attack sheep at the throat, but young or inexperienced coyotes may attack any part of the body. Coyotes usually kill calves by eating into the anus or abdominal area.Dogs generally do not kill sheep or calves for food and are relatively indiscriminate in how and where they attack. Sometimes, however, it is difficult to differentiate between dog and coyote kills without also looking at other sign, such as size of tracks and spacing and size of canine tooth punctures. Coyote tracks tend to be more oval-shaped and compact than those of common dogs. Nail marks are less prominent and the tracks tend to follow a straight line more closely than those of dogs. The average coyote’s stride at a trot is 16 to 18 inches (41 to 46 cm), which is typically longer than that of a dog of similar size and weight. Generally, dogs attack and rip the flanks, hind quarters, and head, and may chew ears. The sheep are sometimes still alive but may be severely wounded.Accurately determining whether or not predation occurred and, if so, by what species, requires a considerable amount of knowledge and experience. Evidence must be gathered, pieced together, and then evaluated in light of the predators that are in the area, the time of day, the season of the year, and numerous other factors. Sometimes even experts are unable to confirm the cause of death, and it may be necessary to rely on circumstantial information.

 

Damage Prevention and Control Methods

The Wildlife Code of Missouri classifies the coyote as a furbearer and game mammal that may be taken during prescribed hunting and trapping seasons. However, damage-causing coyotes may be controlled to prevent further damage. Control methods can include exclusion, habitat modification, trapping and removal. Our technicians will help you determine the best options for your situation.The focus of management should be on preventing damage, and targeting individual coyotes that cause conflicts. It is neither necessary nor practical to kill all coyotes. Use a variety of methods to manage damage as no single method is effective in every situation. Success usually involves an integrated approach that combines removing food attractants with effective lethal removal of individual offending animals. It is important to try to prevent coyotes from killing livestock for the first time. Once a coyote has killed livestock, it will probably continue to do so if given the opportunity. Equally important is taking action as quickly as possible to stop coyotes from killing after they start.

 

• Exclusion - Most coyotes readily cross over, under, or through conventional fences for livestock, or those in residential areas. The response of a coyote to a fence is influenced by various factors, including the experience and motivation of the coyote. Total exclusion, especially from large areas, is unlikely. Some coyotes learn to dig under or climb over fences of almost any size. The success of fences ranges from poor to excellent. Fences are most likely to be cost-effective where predation is high, there is potential for a high stocking rate, or electric modification of existing fences can be used. Net-wire fences in good repair can deter many coyotes from entering a field or pasture. Horizontal spacing of the mesh should be less than 6 inches, and vertical spacing less than 4 inches. Coyotes can be discouraged from digging under a fence by a barbed wire placed at the level of the ground or with a buried wire apron. A fence should be at least 5½ feet high to discourage coyotes from jumping over it. The amount of labor and the techniques for installation vary with each type of fence. High-tensile wire fences require bracing at corners and over long spans. Electric fences are easiest to install on flat, even terrain. Labor to install a high-tensile, electric fence may be 40% to 50% less than for a conventional fence for livestock. The amount of labor required to keep electric fences functional can be significant. Another option is electric modification of existing fences. Where existing fences are in good condition, the addition of wires can significantly improve the ability of the fence to discourage predators and its effectiveness for controlling livestock (Figure 6). A charged trip wire placed 6 to 8 inches above the ground and 8 to 10 inches outside the fence often is effective in preventing coyotes from digging and crawling under. This addition to an existing fence often is the most economical way to fortify a fence against coyotes. The advent of safe, high-energy chargers has led to the development of portable electric fences. Most are constructed with thin strands of wire that run through polyethylene ribbon (polytape) and ribbon (polywire). Both are available in single and multiple wire rolls, or as mesh fencing. Portable electric fences allow for the setup of temporary pens to hold livestock at night, or during activities to control predators. Animals that are not accustomed to being fenced may be difficult to contain in a portable electric fence. Consider modifying chain link and other non-electric fences. Coyotes normally do not jump 6-foot fences. Instead, they grab the top of the fence and pull themselves over. The Coyote Roller™ is marketed as a device to prevent coyotes from climbing fences. The spinning action of Coyote Roller’s™ prevents coyotes from gaining a foothold. The Coyote Roller™ is suitable for fences at least 6 feet tall. The fences must be secured to the ground to prevent coyotes from digging underneath.

• Habitat Modification - Habitats change in some areas depending on the season and the growth of crops. In general, areas that are more open are less likely to have problems with coyote predation. Piles of junk located near farms are good habitat for rabbits and other prey, and may bring coyotes into proximity with livestock. Eliminate sources of cover and food to make yards and landscapes less attractive to coyotes. Eliminate intentional and unintentional feeding of coyotes. Bury livestock carcasses, as carcass dumps are attractive food sources for coyotes. Do not allow small pets outdoors unsupervised, especially at night. Frightening Devices - Devices that frighten coyotes are useful for short periods of time. Avoid habituation and increase the effectiveness by varying the position, appearance, duration, or frequency of the stimuli, or use them in combinations. Some devices provide both audio and visual stimuli to frighten coyotes out of an area. Combinations of lights and noisemakers are common. The Electronic Guard incorporates a strobe light and siren that are activated by a light sensor to turn on at dusk and off at dawn. One Electronic Guard can effectively deter coyotes from a 20-acre area of pasture. Yelling, waving arms, throwing things, blowing whistles, or other hazing may temporarily frighten coyotes in residential areas. Be sure the coyote makes eye contact with you to ensure that the coyote understands humans are a threat. Harass or chase coyotes until they are out of sight to reinforce fear of humans. To be effective, these techniques must be widespread, consistent, and combined with removal of food sources.

• Trapping - Many people oppose trapping, especially in urban situations. The most common objections to trapping include the perception that traps are cruel and inhumane, and concern over catching non-target animals, especially pets. When used properly, traps are effective, selective, and safe, especially when used by an experienced trapper. For best and quickest results, have an experienced professional perform trapping. There are many effective methods for trapping coyotes, however, a great deal of experience is required to effectively trap coyotes. Trapping by experienced or untrained people may serve to educate coyotes, making them very difficult to catch, even by experienced trappers. Coyotes, however, exhibit individualized patterns of behavior. Many, but not all, coyotes become trap-shy after being caught and then escaping from a trap. Some coyotes require considerably more time and thought to trap than others. With unlimited time, a person could trap almost any coyote.

• Shooting - Shooting coyotes is legal in Missouri and in some situations it ranks high among the choices for removing a predator. Safety, however, is a critical factor that in some circumstances may preclude the use of firearms (for example, local laws may prohibit shooting, or neighbors may be too close). Shooting is best left to professionals. In many urban areas, firearms may not be discharged, in most situations local authorities have regulations and restrictions regarding the use of firearms.

 

Economics of Damage and Control

The US Fish and Wildlife Service (1978) estimated the economic impact of coyote predation on producers with predator problems, on producers without predator problems, and on consumers during 1977. They used an average lamb loss rate of 4% (267,000 lambs) and a ewe loss rate of 1.5% (125,000 ewes) to estimate an economic loss of $19 million to producers from coyote predation in the 17 western states. The reduced number of sheep and lambs resulted in a higher market price, which benefited producers by $6 million. The net impact of coyote predation on sheep producers was a loss of $13 million, and the impact on consumers was $4 million in additional costs. The General Accounting Office (GAO 1990) estimated that coyotes in 17 western states killed sheep and lambs valued at $18 million in 1989. The National Agricultural Statistical Service (NASS 1991) reported that sheep and lamb losses to coyotes in the United States were valued at $18.3 million in 1990. The US Fish and Wildlife Service (1978) reported calf losses between birth and weaning to coyotes across the United States at 0.4%, with predation decreasing to nearly zero by weaning time. Dorrance (1982) reported that coyotes were responsible for 16% of the 1,520 confirmed predation losses of cattle in Alberta from 1974 to 1978. Coyote predation on calves caused producers with coyote problems across the United States to lose an estimated $20 million. However, because of the greater price flexibility of beef compared with sheep, the reduction in the number of beef calves marketed (estimated at 0.4%, or 115,000 fewer calves) resulted in a higher price, which benefited beef producers by $81 million. The net impact of the reduced supply of beef as a result of coyote predation was a gain of $61 million to beef producers, but it cost consumers an additional $98 million in higher prices for beef, resulting in an overall loss of $37 million. NASS (1992) reported that cattle and calf losses to coyotes in the United States were valued at $24.3 million in 1991.Coyote predation also can cause substantial losses of domestic goats. In three studies in Texas, where an estimated 1.1 million goats (about 90% of the goats in the United States) are raised (Scrivner et al. 1985), predators were reported to take 18.1% of the adults and 33.9% of the kids (Pearson 1986). NASS (1991) reported that goat losses to coyotes in the United States were valued at $5.7 million in 1990. Pearson (1986) stated that predators, particularly coyotes, accounted for losses of hundreds of chickens and turkeys in the 14 western states. In one study, Andelt and Gipson (1979) reported that between June 4 and August 31, 1976, a mated pair of coyotes apparently killed 268 domestic turkeys in Nebraska valued at $938. Although the average value of livestock losses to coyotes reflected the overall impact on producers, it did not reflect the severity of losses to some individuals. Balser (1964) and Gee et al. (1977) indicated that coyote predation is much more serious for some producers than others. Most sheep producers suffer no or minor predator losses, whereas 20% to 25% of the producers suffer losses that are significantly higher than the average (US Fish Wildl. Serv. 1978). These losses can drive producers out of business because of low profit margins. Nonfatal injuries and harassment of livestock by coyotes also can result in reduced weight gain and subsequent reductions in profit.